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Let us look more closely at the events, both external and internal, that transpire when learning takes place. There is, of course, a moment in time when the learner's internal state changes from not-learned to learned, which we will call the essential incident of learning. However, this incident is preceded by certain events that lead up to it and are no less fundamental to the total learning act. The essential incident is also followed by other events, also parts of the total act, which have to do with the execution of the performance that learning has made possible. Considering a single act of learning as a whole, then, it is necessary to describe a set of events that occupy at least a number of seconds and sometimes several minutes.

Other kinds of learned capabilities may also have desirable prerequisites, although their relationships may be somewhat less direct than is the case with intellectual skills. The learning of information, when coded as organized knowledge, requires that the learner know the meaning of the words or phrases that make up the information; that is, he must know them as concepts (a type of intellectual skill). The learning of attitudes often implies prerequisite information or intellectual skills.

A teacher has many things to do, and one of his most important activities is making sure that the learning of students is supported in every possible way. The previous chapters have described the nature of learning processes and learning outcomes and, thus, have indicated the potential ways in which student learning can be influenced. In this chapter and the next, we propose to discuss how procedures of instruction can be devised and used to make these potential influences become actualities.

As we have emphasized throughout this book, the instructional events designed to be carried out during an act of learning (several of which may occur during a single lesson) have the purpose of stimulating, activating, supporting, and facilitating the internal processes of learning. Any of these events may be useful in achieving these purposes for any specific lesson or lesson component, or all of them may be. However, it should be clear that the particular events which need to be planned for any given learner, or for any group of learners, cannot be predicted with precision. Individual differences among students are large, at all ages, and must be taken fully into account in the planning of instruction.