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As indicated by the model introduced, learning recurs as a result of the interaction between a learner and his environment. We know learning has taken place when we observe that the learner's performance has been modified. At one moment in time, for example, a child may not be able to point to the correct article of furniture when we ask him the question, "Where is the credenza?" When we then indicate the credenza to him together with its name, we provide the opportunity for the interaction called learning to take place. Later, we ask the question again, and the child now identifies the object. By means of this set of observations, we see the change in the child's behavior, and we make the immediate inference that learning has taken place.

The set of events observed as learning is formally similar whether we are dealing with changes in the performances of riding a bicycle, recounting the provisions of the Dred Scott decision, cooking peanut brittle, composing a grammatically correct sentence, solving a differential equation, or interpreting a building code. Countless performances are modified during the course of an individual lifetime, and most of these changes result from learning.

The performances themselves vary greatly in kind and in the situations in which they occur; yet it is possible to identify and describe some common features of the events of learning. It is these common characteristics of learning with which the present chapter is concerned.

Some of the events that make up a learning incident are external to the learner. These are the readily observable things: the stimulation that reaches the learner and tne products (including written and spoken information) that result from his responding. In addition, many learning events are internal to the learner and are inferred from the observations made externally.