Conclusion
Being viewed as a facilitative consultant is based on a variety of factors, including the aggregated use of verbal and nonverbal communication skills. It is interesting to note that the research literature is generally quite supportive of the importance of facilitative characteristics such as empathy, congruence, and positive regard in the consulting process. Most of the research that looked at the importance of facilitative characteristics used consultee satisfaction as the primary dependent variable. Mait-land. Fine, and Tracy (1985) did use consultees' perceptions of client behavior change as an outcome measure, but ratings of this variable may have been influenced by a halo effect related to perceptions of the consultants. On the other hand, Bergan and Tombari (1976) did not look at consultee satisfaction; instead, they chose to look at identification and resolution of the client's problem as their outcome measures. Otherwise, we have little evidence that supports the idea that either relationship variables or verbal skills influence client outcomes. Since only one study has focused on nonverbal consultant behavior, it would be premature to draw even tentative conclusions in this area.
Implications for ResearchMuch of the research reviewed is correlational; this, of course, precludes drawing causal inferences regarding the relationship of interpersonal skills and consultee or client behavior change. There is a need for experimental research examining the impact of interpersonal skills on both consultee and client outcomes in consultation. For example, to what extent is it necessary to engage in building the consulting relationship before engaging in problem solving? Additionally, what are the consultee variables that influence relationship development and engagement in problem-solving behavior? Existential life position, dogmatism (Weissenburger et al., 1982), number of contacts, experience and age (Maitland et al., 1985), and theoretical flexibility (Bergan & Tombari, 1976) have been examined as factors relating to consultant-consultee interaction and, to a minimal degree, consultation outcomes. There are undoubtedly a myriad of other factors, such as consultee and consultant values and expectations, which deserve attention by researchers.
Etzion's (1980) research also raised an interesting question about the impact of the consultants' expectations on their verbal behavior in consultation. This is an area that bears additional investigation, as do the expectations of the consultee (Brown, Pryzwansky, & Schulte, 1987). Specifically, do consultants who enter consultation with the expectation that they are there to assist the consultee solve the client's problem act differently from those who expect to solve the problem themselves?
Future research must eliminate the confound that exists whenever the consultee rates both the consulting relationship and client outcomes. Ideally, researchers would use consultee's rating of the relationship as one dependent variable, measures of the consultation process, such as ratings of tape recordings by independent judges as a second dependent variable, data about the consultee's ability to deal with the client (e.g., skill level) as a third dependent variable, and improvement of the client's behavior as a fourth dependent variable of the success of consultation.
Finally, there is a need for more research with consultees other than teachers. As noted earlier, the generalizability of the research to date is restricted to teachers in public school settings. While the focus on teachers is useful in that a definite body of literature has developed in this area, there is a need to determine if the results found in educational settings generalize to consultees in other settings.
Implications for Counselor EducationIt appears that the interpersonal skills needed in counseling are also required in consultation, although the literature is far from conclusive. There are also suggestions in the literature, particularly in the work of Bergan and Tombari (1975, 1976) and Paskewicz (1984), that skills other than those required to develop a relationship with the consultee are required as well. It is doubtful that many counselors receive training in these areas, since only about one in five counselor education programs actually require a course in consultation. While it is true that a few programs (about 14%) offer some training in consultation (Brown, Spano, & Schulte, 1988), it seems unlikely that counselor trainees receive the type of training they need, since the skills required are quite different from those required in counseling (see Bergan, 1977; Parsons & Meyers, 1984). Research also suggests that traditional counseling techniques may be employed quite differently in consultation than in counseling (Henning-Stout & Conoley, 1987). Therefore, counselor educators who genuinely wish to develop interpersonal skills that will ensure the likelihood of success in consultation are faced with reconceptualizing their training programs in this area. Implications for PractitionersThere are many indications that counselors are becoming more involved in consultation (see Brown, 1985; Brown et al., 1987). It appears that those counselor-consultants who are unable to establish good helping relationships are likely to be less effective. One dictum suggested by the literature is "be facilitative." Being facilitative may mean that verbal techniques are not used in the same manner in consultation as they are in counseling. Henning-Stout and Conoley (1987) found that counselor-trainees used more verbally restrictive leads (as opposed to open-ended) when they were engaged in consultation than when they were counseling. They concluded that their findings, suggest that counseling and consultation are procedurally divergent interventions. However, they did not investigate the impact of the utilization of various types of leads on consultees or their clients. We clearly need more data regarding the impact of different types of leads on consultee self-disclosure, the consulting relationship, and the outcomes of consultation.
Imperatives other than "be facilitative" are not as easy to identify, although Bergan and Tombari's (1976) research indicated that flexibility in one's approach to the consultee is an important variable in problem identification and resolution. Hansen and Himes (1977) also suggested that being able to give helpful suggestions is important. Finally, the results of Etzion's (1980) investigation suggested that consultants' verbal behavior may be influenced by what they expect to occur in the consultation session. Therefore, consultants may need to consider whether they intend to act collaboratively with the consultee or to function as an expert in the consulting relationship. Since consultation is an interactional process, it is suggested that consultees' expectations of the consultant be considered as a prime factor in reaching this decision. It seems apparent that congruence between consultee and consultant with regard to expectations about roles to be assumed within the consulting relationship is a requisite to success.
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G. Evette Horton is a school counselor, Neal Middle School, Durham, North Carolina, Duane Brown is a professor. School of Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to G. Evette Horton, 98 Polks Landing, Chapel Hill, NC 27516 or Duane Brown, School of Education, CB#3500 Peabody Hall, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3500.
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