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 Motivation Theory and Research

 

Theory and the Study of Motivation

Like most teachers, Keith, Sara, and A. K. have theories about what motivates students. Their theories reflect their intuitive understandings of their students and help guide their actions. Such intuitive understanding is beneficial in many ways. In this section, however, we discuss theory from a scientific perspective and its role in systematic empirical research. We define a theory as a scientifically acceptable set of principles advanced to explain a phenomenon. A theory provides a framework for interpreting environmental observations and helps link research and education. Without a theory, research findings would be disorganized and have no common referent.

Consider the following example. Much research shows that students' beliefs about their capabilities relate to motivation. Students who feel self-confident about learning and performing well in school seek challenges, expend effort to learn new material, and persist at difficult tasks (Schunk, 1995). Although interesting, these findings are unrelated to other knowledge about motivation and do not inform teachers about ways to raise student motivation. If we link these findings to any of the several motivation theories that stress the role of perceived capabilities in motivation, then we see how such beliefs fit into a broad motivational framework and we have a better idea about what affects beliefs and how they influence motivation.

Theories reflect environmental phenomena and generate new research through the formation of hypotheses, or assumptions that can be empirically tested. Hypotheses state what conditions ought to accompany or follow other variables. We could, for example, test the following hypothesis in a research study: If students' perceived capabilities improve, then they will display greater academic motivation (choice of tasks, effort, and persistence). When research data support hypotheses, the parent theories are strengthened. Hypotheses not supported by data may necessitate revision of the theories. Scientists strive to make sense out of research results and relate them to their prior theoretical beliefs (Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993).

How this process might work in teaching can be illustrated with an example from Keith's class. From his interactions with Erin and her parents, Keith has come to an intuitive (naive theoretical) understanding that Erin's desire to outperform everyone stems from a basic insecurity. Erin is the youngest child in a family in which her older brothers and sisters have performed very well in school. Keith believes that Erin does not want to appear any less competent than her siblings. Thus, her behavior of trying to do better than everyone else represents a means of performing well.

Based on this understanding, Keith formulates the following hypothesis: If Erin can see herself as a worthwhile and competent person, then she will become less competitive. Keith employs methods in his class that he believes will convey this impression to Erin. Keith provides Erin with ample feedback showing how her work is exemplary and how she is improving her skills. He tries to assuage Erin's fears about not performing well by encouraging her to work diligently Keith structures tasks and presents material that he believes Erin can master. Keith also makes frequent use of small student groups that work cooperatively to accomplish a task. Keith hopes that by decreasing Erin's opportunities for competition, she may develop greater motivation for learning. Keith will evaluate his hypothesis by observing Erin's behavior, talking with her, and gauging the reactions of her classmates.
A good historical example of research data that did not support a hypothesis and required revision of the underlying theory is found in Hull's (1943) systematic behavior theory Hull postulated that amount of reward was a critical variable for learning such that behavior was strengthened when a large reward was given immediately after goal attainment and that as reward size decreased behavioral strength declined.

Although intuitively appealing, this idea was not supported by research. Studies by Tolman and Honzik (1930) on latent learning showed that rats learned to run mazes without being rewarded. Other research demonstrated that shifts in performance (e.g., speed of maze running) occurred after the behavior had been learned and depended on changes in reward size (Crespi, 1942). The latter finding could not be due to altered strength of behavior, because learning was hypothesized to increase slowly with repeated reward.
Eventually, Hull (1952) modified his theory to include an incentive motivation factor. Spence (1960) explored this factor in depth and concluded that reward did not affect learning but rather performance and that incentive motivation was a performance variable. Although many researchers today believe that motivation affects both learning and performance, this example illustrates how theories undergo revision as a result of hypothesis testing.

Sometimes we conduct research with little theory to guide us. When that happens we may formulate objectives or questions to be answered rather than hypotheses. Regardless of whether we employ hypotheses, objectives, or questions, we need to state the research conditions as precisely as possible. In examining research, it is important to understand the procedure that was followed, the measures used to assess motivation and other variables, and the characteristics of the participants, to adequately evaluate the research.